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U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 75. 



B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief Vf -Bureau, 



RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE 
OF WASHINGTON. 



J. S. COTTON, 

Assistant in Range Investigations, 

In Cooperation with the Washington State 

Experiment Station. 



GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. 



Issued May z3, 1905 




WASHINGTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

19 5. 




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http://www.archive.org/details/rangemanagementiOOcott 



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Bui. 75, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate I. 




Fig. 1 .—Mountain Meadow where Timothy was Seeded in the Autumn of 1902. 




Fig. 2.— Same Plot Shown in Figure 1, Two Years Later. 
RANGE IMPROVEMENT BY RESEEDING. 



U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY— BULLETIN NO. 75. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, Chief of Bureau 



RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE 
OF WASHINGTON. 



/^c 



COTTON, 

i' 

Assistant in Range Investigations, 

In Cooperation with the Washington State 

Experiment Station. 



GRASS AND FORAGE PLAf" INVESTIGATIONS 



Issued May 23, 1905. 




WASHINGTON : 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 

1905. 



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V 



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BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY. 

B. T. GALLOWAY, 

Pathologist and Physiologist, and Chief of Bureau. 

VEGETABLE PATHOLOGICAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 

Albert F. Woods, Pathologist and Physiologist in Charge, 

Acting Chief of Bureau in Absence of Chief. 

BOTANICAL INVESTIGATIONS AND EXPERIMENTS. 
Frederick V. Coville, Botanist in Charge. 

GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. 
W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist in Charge. 

POMOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS. 
G. B. Brackett, Pomologist in Charge. 

SEED AND PLANT INTRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION. 
A. J. Pieters, Botanist in Charge. 

ARLINGTON EXPERIMENTAL FARM. 
L. C. Corbett, Horticulturist in Charge. 

EXPERIMENTAL GARDENS AND GROUNDS. 
E. M. Byrnes, Superintendent. 



J. E. Rockwell, Editor. 
James E. Jones, Chief Clerk. 



GRASS AND FORAGE PLANT INVESTIGATIONS. 

SCIENTIFIC STAFF. 

W. J. Spillman, Agrostologist. 

A. S. Hitchcock, Assistant Agrostologist in Charge of Alfalfa and Clover In- 
vestigations. 

C. V. Piper, Systematic Agrostologist in Charge of Herbarium. 

David Griffiths, Assistant Agrostologist in Charge of Range Investigations. 

C. R. Ball, Assistant Agrostologist in Charge of Work on Arlington Farm. 
S. M. Tracy, Special Agent in Charge of Gulf Coast Investigations. 

D. A. Brodie, Assistant Agrostologist' in Charge of Cooperative Work. 
P. L. Ricker, Assistant in Herbarium. 

J. M. Westgate, Assistant in Sand-Binding Work. 

Byron Hunter, Assistant in Charge of Pacific Coast Investigations. 

R. A. Oakley, Assistant in Domestication of Wild Grasses. 

C. W. Warburton, Assistant in Fodder Plant and Millet Investigations. 

M. A. Crosby, Assistant in Southern Forage Plant Investigations. 

J. S. Cotton. Assistant in Range Investigations. 

Leslie F. Paull, Assistant in Investigations at Arlington Farm, 

Harold T. Nielsen, Assistant in Alfalfa and Clover Investigations. 

Agnes Chase, Agrostological Artist. 



JAN 8 1907 

o. of a 



LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 



U. S. Department of Agriculture, 

Bureau of Plant Industry, 

Office of the Chief, 
Washington, D. C, February 24, 1905. 
Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith the manuscript of a 
paper on Range Management in the State of Washington, which em- 
bodies a report upon investigations conducted in cooperation with the 
Washington State Experiment Station. 

This paper is a valuable contribution to our knowledge of improve- 
ment of range lands, and I respectfully recommend that it be issued as 
Bulletin No. 75 of the Bureau series. 

The accompanying illustrations are necessary to a complete under- 
standing of the text. 

Respectfully, B. T. Galloway, 

' Chief of Bureau. 
Hon. James Wilson, 

Secretary of Agriculture. 

3 



PREFACE. 



In the spring of 1901 cooperative arrangements were entered into 
between the United States Department of Agriculture and the Agri- 
cultural Experiment Station of the State of Washington for the 
conduct of investigations on range lands in that State. These inves- 
tigations were inaugurated by the writer, who at that time was agri- 
culturist of the Washington State Experiment Station, acting both 
for the station and for the Department of Agriculture, under the 
direction of the then Agrostologist. and the details of the work 
planned were carried out by Mr. J. S. Cotton, under the direction of 
the writer. This cooperative arrangement continued until the end 
of December. 1903. Since June 1. 1901, the work has been continued 
by the United States Department of Agriculture under the direction 
of the writer, the details of the work being again carried out by Mr. 
Cotton. 

In 1901 experiments were undertaken on Rattlesnake Mountain. 
at a point 16 miles north of Prosser. Wash., with a view to determin- 
ing what grasses could be established on the range by seeding by 
different methods. In October. 190:2, similar experiments were 
inaugurated at the Wenatchee Mountain Station on the high range 
of mountains separating the Kittitas Valley from the Columbia 
Valley to the north. 

In addition to the seeding experiments above mentioned, Mr. Cot- 
ton has spent much time in studying the methods used for managing 
stock upon the range throughout central "Washington, and the accom- 
panying bulletin gives the results of the seeding experiments and of 
Mr. Cotton's studies on range management. Some of the work has 
demonstrated that certain grasses can be established in favorable 
localities in a manner which is entirely practicable, while Mr. Cotton's 
conclusions regarding methods of range management can not fail 
to be of great interest to stockmen in that section. 

W. J. Spillman. 

Agrostologist. 
Office of Grass axd Forage Plant Investigations, 

Washington, I). C, February 2^. 1905. 



CONTENTS. 



Page. 

Introduction : 11 

Range improvements . . . 13 

Winter pastures 13 

Semiarid lands 15 

Mountain grazing areas 17 

Protection of pastures 20 

Alternation of pastures * 23 

Using pastures before ground is settled in the spring 24 

Improvement of stock ... 24 

Index of grasses and forage plants , 25 

Description of plates 28 

35 



ILLUSTRATIONS. 



Page. 
Plate I. Range improvement by reseeding. Fig. 1. — Mountain meadow 

where timothy was seeded in the autumn of 1902. Fig. 2.— Same 

plot shown in figure 1 two years later, showing stand of timothy 

secured Frontispiece. 

II. Types of permanent range land not adapted to other uses. Fig. 

1. — Typical scab land. Fig. 2. — A mountain meadow 28 

III. Bunch wheat-grass pastures. Fig. 1.- -Pasture that has been 

overgrazed until nothing but June grass is left. Fig. 2. — A 

bunch wheat- grass pasture that has been properly handled 28 

22586— No. 75—05 M 2 9 



B. P. I.— 153. G. F. P. I.— 110. 

RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF 
WASHINGTON. 



INTRODUCTION. 

Owing to the greatly lowered carrying capacity of ranges in the 
State of Washington, investigations were begun in the spring of 1901 
to determine, if possible, what steps must be taken to preserve these 
ranges and what methods should be used to bring the badly over- 
grazed areas back to their original state of productivity. These 
investigations were carried on cooperatively between the Bureau of 
Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture and 
the Washington Agricultural Experiment Station from that time 
until January 1, 1904, when the experiment station withdrew. Since 
that time these investigations have been carried on independently 
by the Bureau of Plant Industry. 

In the early nineties the ranges were very much overgrazed, and 
owing to the overcrowded conditions were deteriorating very rapidly. 
In 1896 the Northern Pacific Railway Company, in order to alleviate 
these conditions, which by that time had become very serious, insti- 
tuted a system of leasing the railroad land, or odd sections, of the 
grazing areas to the stockmen. The motive in leasing this land was 
to prevent the destruction of the native forage plants of the grazing 
areas, which meant the removal of the stockmen from that region 
and a consequent loss of traffic to the railway company. The first 
lease of this kind was issued on July 1, 1896. Between that date and 
June 13, 1903, over 300 leases, embracing about 1,500,000 acres of land, 
were issued, and at the present time the greater part of these ranges is 
under the control of private individuals. 

While this system was bitterly opposed by some of the stockmen, 
it really proved to be of great benefit to the State at large, as it 
enabled those people who had homes in the grazing country to secure 
control of the railroad lands about them by means of a lease, and thus 
protect themselves from the ravages of nomadic stock. The more 
progressive stockmen immediately availed themselves of this oppor- 
tunity. The nomadic stockmen — to protect themselves from each 
other and to prevent being forced out of the country — also leased 
grazing lands sufficient for their needs. Had it not been for the large 

11 



12 RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 

numbers of range horses that were alloAved to run at will throughout 
the entire year, and thus continue their depredations, this system 
would undoubtedly have proved very satisfactory. 

Shortly after this leasing system had been inaugurated a heavy 
immigration to central Washington took place. This immigration, 
together with the discovery which had been made shortly before, that 
large areas of land previously supposed to be of value for grazing 
purposes only would grow wheat, caused a rapid settling up of this 
region. As a result, large areas of bunch-grass land were home- 
steaded and purchased, until at the present time nearly all the land 
that is smooth enough for cultivation is used in growing wheat, or is 
being prepared for that purpose. This rapid settling up of the 
bunch-grass land has forced the stockmen into the coulee and hill 
lands, too rough for cultivation, and into the true arid regions and the 
mountains. In the arid regions the range is also gradually growing 
less, a condition which will continue, as irrigation, owing to the 
incentive given it by Federal legislation, will be vastly extended in 
the near future. 

The progressive stockmen, in order to keep pace with the rapid 
development of the country for farming purposes, which has resulted 
in the crowding of their stock into much smaller confines, have pur- 
chased railroad lands, and wherever possible they have also leased 
the State lands that are unfit for cultivation and have fenced them 
for grazing purposes. Many of the original purchasers of the range 
lands are now in a prosperous condition. Others, who have acquired 
their lands within the past two or three years, are finding themselves 
seriously handicapped owing to the badly depleted condition of these 
ranges. Although they have much more to contend with than those 
who purchased before the depletion of the ranges was so great they 
will with persistent effort and judicious management eventually be 
successful. Those who have been too slow to realize the changed 
conditions have found themselves without range land, and for the 
most part these men have been compelled to go out of stock raising 
as a business. At the present time there is very little free range 
land except in the high mountain areas, where the grazing season 
does not last more than five months, and in the Okanogan country. 

In the Okanogan country, owing to the present laws, it is impos- 
sible to secure tracts of land larger than 160 acres. Upon so small 
an area no one can make a living, and settlers are therefore dependent 
in part upon the outside range. Fortunately for them the natural 
conditions have in the past protected the country from being made a 
wilderness by overgrazing. The winters are long and the snowfall 
is quite heavy, thus necessitating winter feeding. For this reason 
the range horses, which have been a very great factor in the destruc- 
tion of the ranges to the south, are not found to any great extent in 



RANGE IMPROVEMENTS. 13 

this region. The strong opposition of the cattlemen, together with 
the long feeding season, has also prevented sheep from gaining an 
entrance to any appreciable extent. Again, the cattlemen them- 
selves have been limited in the number of cattle they could run on a 
range by the quantity of hay for winter feeding they could raise 
on their irrigated ranches in the river and creek valleys. The 
Okanogan ranges will last for a number of years, but as the country 
is gradually settled up these grazing lands will eventually suffer the 
same fate as all other grazing lands in the State, unless some system 
can be devised for their protection. 

The area of free range in the mountains is also rapidly decreasing. 
The creation of two large forest reserves in the Cascades — the Wash- 
ington Forest Reserve in the northern part and the Mount Rainier 
Forest Reserve in the southern part— has greatly reduced the free 
mountain range. While, of course, stock is not entirely prohibited 
from these areas, the number allowed on them is far less than was 
accustomed to graze there before the reserves were created. This 
restriction has naturally resulted in a very crowded condition of the 
stock in the summer pastures outside of the reserves, and at the rate 
at which the grass was being taken a couple of years ago it looked 
as though these areas would soon be as badly devastated as the lower 
range lands. However, within the last three years the timber com- 
panies have been buying up large tracts, part of which they are 
leasing to cattlemen for five-year periods, while no stock is allowed 
on the remainder. At the same time, in the more accessible areas, 
where the grazing season is long enough to make it profitable to do so, 
the stockmen have been purchasing large tracts of this summer range. 
These purchases on the part of the timbermen and the stockmen 
living in the near vicinity have resulted in almost entirely shutting 
out nomadic stock from their summer range. s 

RANGE IMPROVEMENTS. 

The purchasing of the range lands of the State is greatly simplify- 
ing the problem of range improvement. The instant that the stock- 
man has fenced his land he is in a position to protect it from all 
outside interference, and can control the number of stock allowed on it. 
Instead of following the old system of grabbing all that he can before 
some one else gets it, he will try to use his grazing land so that it will 
yield him the highest results from year to year. 

WINTER PASTURES. 

In the true arid region, where sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) is 
the j^revailing vegetation, fencing and protecting the land from over- 
grazing during that season of the year when the native forage plants 



14 RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 

are going to seed will in all probability be the only satisfactory 
method of restoration. This will not be at all difficult, for, owing to 
the scarcit}^ of water and to the too great heat, the cattle and sheep 
are taken to the higher altitudes during the summer months. In this 
way the native vegetation will have a chance to make a good growth 
and go to seed each season without interference from the stock. 
Through this method the pasture will not only yield a crop of seed on 
which future improvements will be based, but the plants which have 
been grazed to a point very near that of extermination will be given 
a chance to regain their former vigor. 

At the present time nearly all the perennial grasses have been 
destroyed. There are, however, enough of these remaining (having 
been protected by growing in clumps of sagebrush where stock could 
not reach them) to furnish a crop of seed, if given a chance, although 
this crop may be very light for the first year or two. In addition to 
these there are numerous annual grasses and weeds that make excel- 
lent feed which, if given an opportunity, will in time become quite 
abundant. There are also numerous perennial shrubs, such as white 
sage {Eurotia lanata), bitter brush (Purshia tridentata), hop sage 
(Grayia spinosa), and greasewood {Sarcobatus vermictdatus) — -each 
having its characteristic locality — which yield a considerable amount 
of browse, and which will furnish seed for new plants. 

The only time of year when special care will need to be exercised in 
the grazing of these pastures will be in the spring months, when the 
young plants begin to grow. If the land be too heavily grazed at 
that. period the young plants will be entirely killed out. This trouble 
can, however, be easily remedied by dividing the grazing area into 
two or three pastures, and by grazing off that portion of the land 
which is to be allowed to restore itself during the winter and exclud- 
ing the stock during the time the young plants are getting a start. 
The next year another field can be given a like chance, and so on, 
alternately. In this manner it would be only a few years — probably 
not more than seven or eight — before the so-called desert areas would 
be restored to their original carrying capacity before overgrazing 
took place. Meantime the stockman would have full use of his land, 
and would be able gradually to increase the number of stock grazing 
on it, provided he judiciously confined the aggregate of his stock to 
the limit of the carrying capacity of his range. 

As an example of this, the writer has on several occasions observed 
with interest an area a few miles west of Sunnyside. In the early 
part of 1900 this land belonged to the open range. It was fenced 
during that season, and has since that time been used to some extent 
as a pasture. While this field has not been handled in an ideal man- 
ner, nevertheless the native perennial grasses, such as sand-grass or 
needle grass (Stipa comata), Indian millet (Eriocoma cuspidata), and 



SEMI ARID LANDS. 15 

woolly wheat-grass (Ayropyron sv.bvillosum), have become consider- 
ably more abundant each season. By the season of 1904 these grasses 
had become so abundant that it seems fair to conclude that if given 
an opportunity they will in the course of another three or four years 
make a very good stand. 

Another very strong proof of what can be done in the semiarid 
region is shown in that part of the open-range lands lying above the 
Washington Irrigation Company's canal, directly north of Prosser. 
Although fully as many sheep as ever graze on this land during the 
winter season, the range is actually improving. This is due to the 
fact that the range horses have become much less numerous, having 
been sold to settlers or shipped out of the State. In this way the 
vegetation has been given an opportunity to reseed itself, and it 
has also had a chance to make some growth during the summer while 
the sheep and cattle were in the mountains. 

In the sandy, sagebrush area lying some 15 to 25 miles south of the 
Great Northern Railway, in Douglass County — commonly known as 
"the desert" — there are several thousand acres of range land where 
there is still excellent feed. This consists mainly of needle grass 
{Stipa comata) , Indian millet (Erioeoma cuspidata) , and sunflowers 
(Balsamovrhiza careyana), while bitter brush (Purshia triden- 
tata) and various species of Eriogonum and Phlox furnish a large 
quantity of browse. The reason the vegetation in this area remains 
good while that about it has been very nearly destroyed is due to the 
great scarcity of water, which renders it almost inaccessible to stock 
during the hot weather. At the present time horses are the only 
kind of stock that can graze in this region during the summer 
months, and even they can only penetrate some 10 or 12 miles at the 
most, being compelled to go to water every day or two. By reason 
of this the vegetation has a chance to reach its full growth and to go 
to seed during the summer season. During the winter months, when 
stock can go for several days at a time without water, this vegetation 
is all eaten off, but this comes at a time of year when comparatively 
little damage is done. 

SEMIARID LANDS. 

The semiarid or true bunch-grass lands can also by judicious man- 
agement on the part of the owners be brought back to their original 
state of productiveness. The best method for improving these areas 
will be to fence them and protect them from all nomadic stock, and 
give the native grasses a chance to restore themselves. 

The two most important of the native grasses are bunch wheat- 
grass (Agropyron spicatum), which grows on the hillsides and 
plateau lands, and giant rye-grass (Ely mux cofidensatus) , which 
grows on the bottom lands and on the more or less alkaline situations. 



16 RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 

At the present time there are large areas (see PL III, fig. 1) where 
all of the native grasses, except June grass (Poa sandbergii) , have 
been destroyed. The latter — owing to the fact that it is not relished 
by stock after it begins to head out — is still quite abundant and fur- 
nishes a large amount of spring grazing. Wherever these plants are 
destroyed sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata) and rabbit brush or 
"yellow sagebrush" (Chrysothamnus nauseosus, C. viscidiflorus) , 
and other weeds that are not relished by stock have taken their places. 

There is considerable difference of opinion among the stockmen as 
to whether or not the native grasses, especially bunch-grass, will 
restore themselves if given an opportunity. Some claim that these 
grasses will come back if given a chance, while others maintain the 
contrary opinion. Both are in a measure correct. The truth of this 
matter depends largely upon how long these grasses have been too 
closely grazed. If they have been kept grazed down to a point where 
they have had no opportunity to go to seed for a number of years, and 
until the roots, unable to withstand the strain put upon them, have 
died out, they will, of course, not come back. If, on the other hand, 
as is for the most part true, the roots have not been absolutely killed 
out or there is still some seed left in the ground, these grasses will 
eventually restore themselves, although this process may be extremely 
slow. 

During the seasons of 1901, 1902, and 1903 experiments were car- 
ried on in the Rattlesnake Mountains, where the annual precipitation 
is approximately 13 inches, to determine what grasses and forage 
plants would be of value for use in the restoration of the range. 
These experiments proved that bunch-grass could be successfully 
grown on cultivated ground. They also showed that alfalfa could 
be profitably raised in that locality and that hairy vetch (Vicia 
vttlosa) might prove of value in range improvement. In this work 
no forage plant was found that would give any better yield than the 
bunch wheat-grass or the other native grasses. Even if such a plant 
could be found it is doubtful whether it would stand the actual hard- 
ship that the bunch wheat-grass or giant rye-grass will. endure, or 
would have the high feeding value of the two plants mentioned. 

Where the range is in a very bad state of depletion, and where the 
native grasses have been nearly exterminated, it is believed that the 
process of restoration can be greatly hastened by gathering seed of 
bunch-grass and scattering it in those areas where it formerly grew. 
While experiments to prove this point have not been carried out, it 
is very probable that in favorable seasons reseeding would be very 
successful if the seed were harrowed in or, if more convenient, thor- 
oughly stamped in by herding a bunch of sheep over the area seeded. 
Not only will reseeding hasten this process of restoration, but it will 
give the bunch wheat-grass a start over the weeds that are at the 



MOUNTAIN GRAZING AREAS. 17 

present time taking its place in those areas where overgrazing is going 
on. Experiments to determine this point will be made during 1905. 
The same thing can be done with the giant rye-grass. At the present 
lime the seed of these grasses can not be purchased, but usually it 
would not be difficult to gather it. This can be done by heading the 
grasses with a sickle and putting the heads in a sack, or, if a large 
quantity is desired, there is no reason why the bunch-grass could 
not be gathered with a header and thrashed out with a flail. A 
thrashing machine could be used instead of a flail if the wind were 
shut off. The giant rye-grass could easily be gathered by using a 
self-binder. 

In the foothills region lying between the semiaricl grazing lands 
and the mountain meadows there are large areas of scab land (land 
where the soil is very thin and gravelly and full of stones), especially 
on the hilltops (see PL II, fig. 1). In these regions the grasses have 
been almost completely destroyed, and the prevailing vegetation now 
consists of scab-land sagebrush {Artemisia rigida), mountain sage- 
brush (A. arhuscula), bitter brush (Purshia tridentata), and vari- 
ous species of Eriogonum, all of which furnish considerable browse. 
Under proper management the grasses here will eventually restore 
themselves, but the process will take a long time, in some instances 
probably ten to fifteen years. The restoration may be hastened by 
scattering bunch wheat-grass seed, but it is, perhaps, a question 
whether the process of restoration will not cost more than the original 
value of the land. 

MOUNTAIN GRAZING AREAS. 

The mountain grazing areas, or summer pastures, are at the present 
time very important factors in the range problem of the State. With 
the large quantities of hay that can be raised in the irrigated valleys 
for winter feeding, the number of range stock that the State can sup- 
port is — except in the Okanogan country, where the quantity of hay 
raised is limited — directly dependent upon the number of stock that 
these summer pastures will carry. 

Fortunately, the restoration of the mountain grazing areas will not 
be at all difficult. Here the annual precipitation is ample to support 
an abundant vegetation, which, if given an opportunity, will soon 
grow up again. While in many of the mountain areas the vegetation 
has been badly cleaned out by sheep, the most serious damage has 
been caused by stock tramping on the land too early in the season, 
which has resulted in the ground becoming badly packed. In the true 
mountain meadows (see PI. II, fig. 2), where mountain clover (Trifo- 
Uum longipes), mountain timothy (P /ileum alpinum,), and various 
sedges and rushes comprise the vegetation, there is still an abundance 



18 RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 

of feed, but the carrying capacity of these places has been greatly 
reduced by the continual tramping of stock and consequent packing 
of the ground. On the hillsides surrounding these meadows, where 
the soil is much lighter, the herbage has in many places been killed. 
This, if protected and given an opportunity, will quickly return. 
The worst feature in this restoration process is that many weeds 
which have been brought in by the sheep, of absolutely no value for 
grazing purposes — not even the sheep will eat them — are given an 
equal chance with the good forage plants. 

In many places, some of them covering large areas, the process of 
restoration can be very greatly hastened by reseeding. Not only can 
these areas be brought back to their original carrying capacity by 
reseeding, but it is the firm belief of the writer that in many instances 
their carrying capacity can actually be made much greater than ever 
(see PL I, figs. 1 and 2). This is especially true of the mountain 
meadows. In the majority of cases the reseeding can be done at a 
very small cost, varying from 75 cents to $2 per acre, depending 
on the kind of grass seed used and the number of pounds per acre. 
Even these figures can probably be lowered if the seed is bought in 
considerable quantity. 

In the mountain meadows that are not too swampy, especially in 
those areas where mountain clover grows abundantly, timothy can 
be used to excellent advantage. For the outskirts of these meadows, 
where the soil is a little too dry for timothy to make its best growth, 
tall fescue (Festuca elatior), broine-grass (Bromus inermis), and 
probably orchard grass can be recommended. On the gravelly hill- 
sides mountain brome-grass (Bromus marginatum) , a native grass, 
can be grown to good advantage. So far as known, there is no seed 
of this latter grass on the market. However, if there should be suf- 
ficient demand for it, arrangements could be made for securing it. 

The above conclusions have been reached after two years of experi- 
mentation and of study of the mountain conditions. 

In the autumn of 1902 Messrs. W. H. Babcock and E. F. Benson 
offered the Office of Grass and Forage Plant Investigations the use 
of a section of land, which they agreed to fence, in their mountain 
pasture on the Wen a tehee Mountains, about midway between Ellens- 
burg and Wenatchee. This offer was gladly accepted, and experi- 
ments to determine what grasses could be used in the improvement 
of these mountain areas were immediately begun. The land selected 
is on top of the Wenatchee ridge, and is at an altitude of a little 
more than 5,000 feet. The conditions on this section are typical of 
true mountain range, varying from fertile mountain meadows and 
open parks to old timber burns and scab-land areas. 

The following grasses and forage plants were seeded the same 
autumn: Timothy, Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), redtop, 



MOUNTAIN GRAZING AREAS. 19 

white clover, and mountain brome-grass (Bromus marginatus). 
These were seeded in plots of approximately 5 acres each. On half 
of each of these plots the seed was broadcasted without further 
preparation. On the remaining- half the seed was harrowed in with 
a spring-toothed harrow. In addition to these, small plots of Cana- 
dian rye-grass (Elymus canadensis) and wild wheat (Elymus triti- 
coides) were seeded. 

In the spring of 1903 the first five plots were duplicated and the 
following grasses and forage plants were added: Brome-grass 
(Bromus inermis). perennial rye-grass (LoUum perenne), Italian 
rye-grass (Lolium italicum), orchard grass, Canadian bluegrass 
(Poa compressa) , tall fescue (Festuca elatio?-), sheep's fescue (Fes- 
tuca ovina). hard fescue (Festuca duriuscula) , cheat (Bromus seca- 
Unus), alsike clover, and red clover. All of these, excepting orchard 
grass, Italian rye-grass, sheep's fescue, and mountain brome-grass, 
were duplicated in the fall. 

In the autumn of 1901 some of these grasses, together with six 
different kinds of vetches and some native grasses, were seeded on 
plowed ground. Reports of these 1904 experiments will be published 
when completed. 

In the above experiments the following grasses have given totally 
negative results, the seed failing to germinate: Canadian rye-grass, 
wild wheat (Elymus triticoides) , Kentucky bluegrass, white clover, 
and hard fescue (Festuca duriuscula). In the following cases the 
seed has germinated fairly well, but the plants have not made satis- 
factory growth: Canadian bluegrass, perennial rye-grass, Italian 
rye-grass, red clover, and alsike clover. It may be that another year 
the alsike clover will do better. So far the writer has been unable 
to determine whether the failure of this plant has been due to lack 
of nitrogen bacteria or to unfavorable conditions in the soil. Another 
year's work will probably demonstrate the cause of the failure of 
this plant. 

Redtop and cheat (Bromus secalinus) have both made a fair 
growth, but can hardly be recommended at this altitude (5,000 feet). 
Of the entire list of grasses tested, the following, in the order in which 
they are named, have proved themselves adapted to mountain range 
conditions: Timothy (see PL I, figs. 1 and 2), mountain brome-grass 
(Bromus marginatus), tall fescue, and brome-grass. It is probable 
that orchard grass will also prove of value in such areas. 

While these experiments have demonstrated that the range can be 
greatly improved by reseeding, they have also shown that, if it is pos- 
sible to do so, the seed should be harrowed in. On those areas where 
the soil is loose, or where pine-grass (C alamagrostis suhsdorf.i) 
grows, a spring-toothed harrow will be found the most satisfactory. 
On those areas where the sedges and mountain clover abound, far 



20 RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 

better results will be obtained, if the cost is not too great, by using a 
disk harrow. In many cases it is quite possible that a bunch of sheep 
would be fully as efficient, although this can not be recommended 
with assurance, as it has never been tried. The timothy seeded on the 
plots without harrowing, in the autumn of 1902, germinated fairly 
well, but the difference between the harrowed and unharrowed parts 
of the plot was very great — great enough, in fact, to well repay the 
cost of harrowing. The same thing held true on the plots of redtop 
and mountain brome-grass. 

In the work of the spring of 1903 nearly all the seed not harrowed 
in failed to germinate, while wherever the seed was harrowed in a 
fair stand was obtained. This latter experiment, and a study of the 
soil conditions, would show it to be a waste of effort to seed in the 
spring without covering, as the top of the ground dries off before the 
seeds can get moisture enough to enable them to germinate and grow. 
Mr. Benson, one of the owners of the range, thinks that the experi- 
ments have shown conclusively that it is- a waste of seed to sow it 
without harrowing. This is undoubtedly true of spring seeding, and 
probably also of fall seeding with many of the grasses. However, it 
is possible to sow timothy and mountain brome-grass and to secure a 
fair stand without covering, but, as stated above, the extra cost of 
harrowing will be well repaid. 

The use of the harrow is also strongly urged for other reasons. It 
is very noticeable that wherever the harrow has been usecl the native 
grasses and forage plants have germinated much more profusely, 
and in small spots where there happened to be seed scattered from 
a few individual plants the stand has been greatly thickened. This 
is especially true of one of the forms of Bromus marginatus, which 
grows native on that section, of mountain needle grass (Stvpa occi- 
dentalis), and of the wild pea (Vicia americana) . 

In this connection, fall seeding instead of spring seeding is rec- 
ommended. The reason for this is that the snow usually comes early 
in the autumn and goes away late in the spring. As a consequence, 
the ground seldom freezes deep, and when the snow melts in the 
spring it has a tendency to bury the seed sown late in the fall. On 
the other hand, if the seed is sown in the spring the top of the ground 
becomes so dry within four or five days after the snow has disap- 
peared that the seed will have no opportunity to germinate unless 
the season should prove to be an unusually rainy one. 

PROTECTION OF PASTURES. 

So far emphasis has been put on the fact that fencing is the main 
secret of range improvement. Yet fencing is absolutely of no value 
unless the stockman will treat his pasture with just as much care as 
he would his wheat field. Fencing is merely a means to an end. 



PROTECTION OF PASTURES. 21 

Many of the stockmen, especially cattlemen, seem to think that when 
they have excluded the outside stock, sheep in particular, from their 
land, it will carry whatever stock they may have, and they are dis- 
appointed if it does not. While it is true that some kinds of 
stock do more damage to a given range than others, the injury is 
caused not so much by the kind as it is by the number of stock and 
the methods used in handling it. Just because the stockman has 
fenced his range and excluded all outside stock he must not lose 
sight of the fact that he has not in the least changed the carrying 
capacity of his range. 

To illustrate this point, the writer, during the season of 1904, had 
an opportunity to study a number of pastures that had been newly 
fenced. One of these pastures, owned by a stock company, was pur- 
chased in the summer of 1903 and fenced during the spring of 1904. 
This pasture was in a region where there is a great deal of scab land, 
which meant that the carrying capacity was naturally very low, and 
in a localit}^ where the vegetation had previously been nearly de- 
stroyed by numerous bands of sheep. The owners, having eliminated 
the sheep and all other stock, did not estimate its carrying capacity, 
but turned all of their cattle into the pasture, without further atten- 
tion. In the autumn, when they came to gather in their stock, they 
found that every bit of feed, including all the browse the cattle could 
get, was gone, and that the stock were in very poor shape, some of 
them being in a half -starved condition. These men by overgrazing 
their pasture lost heavily, as they will have to feed a great deal of 
hay to bring their cattle back to the condition they were in when 
turned into the pasture. Not only did they lose heavily on the 
cattle, but they also did the range a very serious injury, for, instead 
of supporting more stock another year, its carrying capacity has been 
greatly lessened. 

Another range adjoining the one just mentioned has also suffered 
heavily from overstocking. In this case the owners, at the time they 
turned their cattle in, believed that their range would actually im- 
prove with what stock they had on it. However, they miscalcu- 
lated, and not only will it take considerable hay to bring the majority 
of their stock back to good condition, but it will also be some time 
before the damage done to their range can be made good. While 
these two pastures were the only ones observed that were so over- 
grazed that the stock were really poorer when taken out than when 
put in, several other pastures were noticed in which the carrying 
capacity will be lower another year than it was during the past 
season, owing to the fact that the native vegetation has been too 
closely grazed. 

The first step that the stockman should take after his pasture is 
fenced is to make a careful estimate of the number of stock it will 



22 RANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 

carry, being very sure not to overestimate, which he is almost certain 
to do. In making this estimate he must not base it on the maxi- 
mum number of stock, i. e.. all the stock that the pasture will carry 
and bring through in good condition without reference to the condi- 
tion in which the pasture is left at the end of the season, but an opti- 
mum number. An optimum number of stock is that number which 
the pasture will carry and bring through in good condition at the 
end of the season, and still be left in condition to carry the same 
stock another year, and so on indefinitely. This means that the stock- 
man must make a careful study of his range, and be ready to revise 
his estimates whenever he sees that it is necessary to do so. By far 
the safest plan will be to pasture somewhat under the optimum num- 
ber, and thus be prepared for a mistake in the estimate or for an 
unusually dry year. In case the range is badly deteriorated when 
the stockman first gets control, it will be absolutely necessary that it 
be pastured considerably under the optimum number if he wishes his 
range to improve. While this may perhaps be a severe strain on him 
for the first year or two, it is nevertheless the only solution. In many 
instances he may be able, to take advantage of the outside range while 
his pastures are improving. 

Plate III, figures 1 and 2, shows very plainly the difference between 
maximum and optimum grazing. The pasture shown in figure 1 is 
very badly depleted and very little vegetation remains except June 
grass (Poa sandbergii) and weeds. This pasture, instead of being 
given a chance to revive, has been grazed to its highest carrying 
capacity each year, with the result that it is gradually deteriorating. 
The pasture shown in figure 2 belongs to the neighboring range. Its 
owner, instead of trying to get all out of his range that he possibly 
can from year to year, has, by using an optimum number of stock, 
given it a chance to improve. At the present time the carrying 
capacity of his range is at least double that of the pasture shown in 
figure 1. 

Mr. Joseph Burtt Davy, in his report on the stock ranges in Cali- 
fornia, where the same range conditions have been passed through as 
are going on in Washington, says : 

Success on one range, as compared with failure on an adjoining one, is. not 
due to any difference in location or other range conditions, nor to any difference 
in the grasses or other plants composing' the pasture ; the natural conditions 
generally are, or have been, identical with those of adjacent and less productive 
ranges. The secret lies in good management, and good management primarily 
consists in carrying the optimum number of stock and allowing plenty of grass 
to go to seed — to go to waste, as the majority of stockmen would call it. 

Mr. J. H. Clarke and Colonel Harding, both successful stock ranchers on a 
large scale, are agreed in declaring that over thirty years of experience proves 
that this surplus grass, instead of being wasted, is equivalent to so much 
capital invested in the range, and is the cause of the prosperity of the few as 



ALTEENATION OF PASTURES. 23 

compared with the failure or poverty of the many. Such men do not stock 
nearly up to the maximum. Owning their own ranges, and therefore not having 
to pay exorbitant interest on the capital invested, they are content with the 
profits obtainable from the optimum number of stock. As a result of this, they 
not only maintain a uniform carrying capacity without deterioration, but gain 
in other ways. Their wool is always cleaner and commands a half cent a pound 
more than that of their neighbors, and both their mutton sheep and their 
lambs command a higher price. " We aim," writes Mr. Clarke, " to keep no 
more stock than the range will easily support. Better a superabundance of 
feed than a scarcity." a, 

ALTERNATION OF PASTURES. 

In many parts of the State of Washington the ranges would be 
greatly benefited if the owner instead of having one large pasture 
would subdivide it into a number of small ones., so that once in 
three or four years each pasture would have a chance to rest and 
reseed itself. This would not mean that the owner would be deprived 
of the feed from that field., but simply that he would let the field lie 
idle for a couple of months during the time of going to seed, and use 
the dry feed later in the season. It would probabty be necessary 
to protect this field from heavy grazing long enough in the following 
spring to give the young plants a chance to become so well established 
that the stock would not pull them up. 

This method has been tried with very good success in Texas, and 
has been found to be of great value in range restoration. Mr. J. G. 
Smith, formerly of the Office of Grass and Forage Plant Investiga- 
tions of the Department of Agriculture, who made a careful investi- 
gation of the stock ranges of that State, makes the following 
statement : 

A rest of two or three months during the growing season in early spring 
would enable the early grasses to ripen and shed their seeds, thus perpetuating 
the early species. After the seed had fallen, the cattle could be turned on the 
grass for two or three months and again transferred to a fresh pasture. In 
the same way autumn and winter pastures can be secured. Several stockmen 
who have employed this method on a large scale for a number of years say that 
their ranges are continually improving, in marked contrast to the deterioration 
that had occurred through bad treatment of neighboring properties where the 
old methods were practiced. It is also claimed that pasture land thus treated 
will carry more head of cattle through the year and bring them out in better 
condition than where the herd has access at all seasons of the year to all por- 
tions of the range. & 

Later experiments to prove this point were carried on by the Office 
of Grass and Forage Plant Investigations at Abilene, Tex., and the 
results have shown conclusively that alternation of pastures is one 

a Bul. 12, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 43. 
& Bul. 16, Division of Agrostology, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, p. 22. 



24 EANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 

of the important steps in the improvement of the ranges of that 
State. 

In eastern Washington some of the more successful stockmen use 
this method to the extent of dividing their holdings into winter and 
summer pastures. Undoubtedly much of their success, as compared 
with the failure of others, can be very largely attributed to that fact. 

USING PASTURES BEFORE GROUND IS SETTLED IN THE SPRING. 

One of the most serious damages to the range is caused by turning 
the stock upon it too early in the season. A great deal of the injury 
that has been done by sheep is due to this cause. Their owners, in 
order to get ahead of others, have pushed the sheep out on to the 
bunch-grass land while the ground was still soft and " punchy." In 
this manner the ground became badly packed and many young plants 
were destroyed almost before they had begun to grow, while much of 
the prevailing vegetation was greatly retarded in its growth by being 
nipped too early in the season. This same process was kept up as 
they followed the retreating snow up into the high mountains. Nu- 
merous instances have been observed where sheep have been run over 
the mountain ranges even before the frost was out of the ground. 

When the stockman once gets his range under his control he should 
endeavor to avoid too early grazing. He will find that in the long 
run it will be better to hold the stock from this area until the ground 
has become settled and the vegetation has had a good start. If it is 
impossible to do this, he should endeavor to confine the damage to as 
small an area as possible. 

IMPROVEMENT OF STOCK. 

Not only should the stockman do all he can to improve his land, 
but he should strive equally hard to improve the quality of his stock. 
In the early dsiys, when there was plenty of good range, it made 
comparatively little difference about the quality of stock, as even a 
poor-grade animal would yield a good profit. To-day, with the 
rapid fencing of the range, these conditions are changed. Now 
grass almost everywhere costs money. Land must for the greater 
part be owned or rented. The stockman can no longer afford to 
keep that type of stock that does not give him the best returns for 
the effort expended and that will best cover his range, whether it 
be cattle, sheep, or horses. 

a Bul. 13, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, pp. 19 and 26. 



INDEX OF GRASSES AND FORAGE PLANTS. 



Agropyron spicatum (Bunch wheat- 
grass), 15, 16, 17. 
subvillosum ( Woolly wheat- 
grass), 15. 
Agrostis alba (Redtop), 18, 19, 20. 
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa), 16. 
Alsike clover (Trifolium Injbridum), 19. 
Artemisia arbuscula (Mountain sage- 
brush), IT. 
rigicla (Scab-land sage- 
brush), 17. 
triden tata ( Sagebrush ) , 13. 
15, 16. 

Balsamorrliisa careyana (Sunflower). 

15. 
Bitter brush (Purshia tridentata), 14, 

15, 17. 
Brome-grass (Bromus inermis), 18, 19. 
Bromus inermis (Brome-grass), 18, 19. 
marginatus (Mountain brome- 
grass), 18, 19, 20. 
secalinus (Cheat), 19. 
Bunch-grass, 16, 17. 

Bunch wheat-grass (Agropyron spica- 
tum), 15, 16, 17. 

Calamagrostis suksdorfii (Pine-grass), 

19. 
Canadian bluegrass (Poa compressa), 
19. 
rye-grass (Elymus canaden- 
sis), 19. 
Car ex spp. (Sedges), 17. 
Cheat {Bromus secalinus), 19. 
Ohrysotliamnus nauseosus and C. vis- 
cidiflorus (Rabbit brush or yellow 
sagebrush), 16. 

Dactylis glomerata (Orchard grass), 
18, 19. 

Elymus canadensis (Canadian rye- 
grass), 19. 
condensatus (Giant rye- 
grass), 15, 16, 17. 
triticoides (Wild wheat), 19. 
Eriocoma cuspidata (Indian millet), 

14, 15. 
Eriogonum, 15, 17. 



Eurotia lanata (White sage), 14. 
Festuea duriuscula (Hard fescue), 19. 

elatior (Tall fescue), 18, 19. 

ovina (Sheep's fescue), 19. 

Giant rve-grass (Elymus condensatus) , 

15, 16, 17. 
Grayia spinosa (Hop sage), 14. 
Greasewood (Sarcobatus vermicula- 

tus), 14. 

Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa), 16. 

Hard fescue (Festuea duriuscula), 19. 

Hop sage (Grayia spinosa), 14. 

Indian millet (Eriocoma cuspidata), 

14, 15. 
Italian rye-grass (Lolium italicum), 

19. 

Juncus spp. (Rushes), 17. 

June grass (Poa sandbergii), 16, 22. 

Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis) , 
18, 19. 

Lolium italicum (Italian rye-grass, 19. 
perenne (Perennial rye-grass), 
19. 

Medicago sativa (Alfalfa), 16. 
Mountain brome-grass (Bromus mar- 
ginatus), 18, 19, 20. 

clover (Trifolium long i pes), 
17, 19. 

needle grass (Stipa occiden- 
talis), 20. 

sagebrush (Artemisia ar- 
buscula), 17. 

timothy (Phleuni alpiiium), 
17. 

Needle grass (Stipa comata), 14, 15. 

Orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata), 

18, 19. 

Perennial rye-grass (Lolium perenne), 

19. 
Phlox 15. 

25 



26 EANGE MANAGEMENT IN THE STATE OF WASHINGTON. 



Phleum alpinum (Mountain timothy), 
17. 
pratense ( Timothy ) , 18, 19, 20. 
Pine-grass {Calamagrostis suksdorfii), 

19. 
Poa compressa (Canadian bluegrass), 
19. 
pratensis' (Kentucky bluegrass). 

18, 19. 
sandbergii (June grass), 16, 22. 
PursMa tridentata ( Bitter brush), 14, 
15', 16. 

Rabbit brush (Chrysothamnus nauseo- 

sus and C. viscidiflorus) , 16. 
Red clover {Trifolium pratense), 19. 
Redtop {Agrostis alba), 18, 19, 20. 
Rushes (J uncus spp.), 17. 

Sagebrush {Artemisia tridentata), 13, 
15, 16. 

Sand-grass (Stipa comata), 14. 

Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Grease- 
wood), 14. 

Scab-land sagebrush {Artemisia ri- 
gida), 17. 

Sedges {Gar ex spp.), 17. 

Sheep's fescue {Festuca ovina), 19. 

Stipa comata (Needle grass or sand- 
grass), 14, 15. 



Stipa occidentalis (Mountain needle 

grass), 20. 
Sunflower {Balsamorrhisa careyana)', 
15. 

Tall fescue {Festuca elatior), 18, 19. 
Timothy {Phlemn pratense), 18,19,20. 
Trifolium liybridum (Alsike clover), 19. 

longipes (Mountain clover), 
17, 19. 

pratense (Red clover), 19. 

repens (White clover) 18, 19. 

Vetches, 19: 

Vicia americana (Wild pea), 20. 
villosa (Hairy vetch), 16. 

White clover {Trifolium repens), 18, 
19. 
sage {Eurotia lanata), 14. 
Wild pea {Vicia americana), 20. 

wheat {Elymus triticoides), 19. 
Woolly wheat-grass {Agropyron sut>- 
villosnm), 15. 

Yellow sagebrush {Chrysothamnus 
nauseosus and C. viscidiflorus), 16. 



PLATES. 



27 



DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 

Plate I. Frontispiece. Range improvement by reseeding. Fig. 1. — Mountain 
meadow where timotby was seeded in the autumn of 1902. The prevailing 
vegetation in the foreground is mountain clover (TrifoUum longipes), which 
makes very little growth. Fig. 2. — The same plot illustrated in figure 1 
two years*later, showing the stand of timothy secured. 

Plate II. Types of permanent range land not adapted to other uses. Fig. 1. — 
Typical scab land. Bunch wheat-grass grew abundantly in these areas be- 
fore overgrazing took place. Fig. 2. — A mountain meadow. A typical place 
for seeding timothy. Tall fescue and brome-grass will grow to advantage 
along the timber edges. 

Plate III. Bunch wheat-grass pastures. Fig. 1. — Bunch wheat-grass pasture 
that has been continually overgrazed until nothing but June grass (Poa 
sahdbergii) is left. Fig. 2. — A bunch wheat-grass pasture that has been 
properly handled. The photographs for figures 1 and 2 were taken on 
adjoining ranges. 

28 

o 



Bui. 75 Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate II. 




Fig. 1 .—Typical Scab Land. 




Fig. 2.— A Mountain Meadow. 



TYPES OF PERMANENT RANGE LAND NOT ADAPTED TO OTHER 

USES. 



Bui. 75, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



Plate III 




Fig. 1.— Pasture that has been Overgrazed Until Nothing but June Grass 

is Left. 




Fig. 2.— Bunch Wheat-grass Pasture that has been Properly Handled. 
BUNCH WHEAT-GRASS PASTURES. 



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